Jean claude legagneur biography of christopher columbus
Christopher Columbus
Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)
"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of position Ocean Sea" redirect here. Expend his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Peer 1 of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) gleam Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).
Christopher Columbus[b] (;[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Might 1506) was an Italian[3][c] globetrotter and navigator from the Position of Genoa[3][4] who completed pair Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Come to an end Monarchs, opening the way carry out the widespread European exploration keep from colonization of the Americas.
Cap expeditions were the first be revealed European contact with the Sea and Central and South Usa.
The name Christopher Columbus decline the anglicization of the Emotional Christophorus Columbus. Growing up potency the coast of Liguria, fair enough went to sea at grand young age and traveled everywhere, as far north as say publicly British Isles and as great south as what is compressed Ghana.
He married Portuguese baroness Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who prick a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for assorted years. He later took natty Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez public Arana, who bore a competing, Ferdinand.[5][6]
Largely self-educated, Columbus was versed in geography, astronomy, and life.
He developed a plan holiday seek a western sea text to the East Indies, ambitious to profit from the remunerative spice trade. After the City War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Broad Monarchs, Queen Isabella I coupled with King Ferdinand II, agreed look after sponsor a journey west. Metropolis left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and uncomplicated landfall in the Americas leave town 12 October, ending the age of human habitation in rendering Americas now referred to translation the pre-Columbian era.
His splashdown place was an island rotation the Bahamas, known by wear smart clothes native inhabitants as Guanahani. Of course then visited the islands these days known as Cuba and Haiti, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus correlative to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word style his voyage soon spread from one place to another Europe.
Columbus made three also voyages to the Americas, curious the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern slide of South America in 1498, and the east coast have a hold over Central America in 1502. Numberless names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are come up for air in use. He gave interpretation name indios ("Indians") to justness indigenous peoples he encountered.
Ethics extent to which he was aware the Americas were clean up wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced king belief he had reached description Far East. As a citizens governor, Columbus was accused do without some of his contemporaries star as significant brutality and removed steer clear of the post. Columbus's strained affiliation with the Crown of Castilla and its colonial administrators timetabled America led to his immobilize and removal from Hispaniola hoard 1500, and later to over-long litigation over the privileges unwind and his heirs claimed were owed to them by integrity crown.
Columbus's expeditions inaugurated wonderful period of exploration, conquest, paramount colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas be concerned with the European sphere of involve. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas mid the Old World and Original World that followed his chief voyage are known as magnanimity Columbian exchange, named after him.
These events and the part which persist to the gain are often cited as interpretation beginning of the modern era.[8][9] Old World diseases brought tablet the New World contributed nearby the depopulation of Hispaniola's local Taíno people, who were additionally subjected to mistreatment including enslavement under Columbus's governance.
Increased decipher awareness of these interactions has led to Columbus being barren celebrated in Western culture, insult his iconic status. Many room in the Western Hemisphere give his name, including the Southernmost American country of Colombia, goodness Canadian province of British Town, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States equipment, the District of Columbia.
Early life
Further information on Columbus's birthplace post background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus
Columbus's early life is cover, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic be worthwhile for Genoa between 25 August promote 31 October 1451.[12] His priest was Domenico Colombo, a fleece weaver who worked in Metropolis and Savona, and owned swell cheese stand at which sour Christopher worked.
His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had iii brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)[14]—as well style a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part run through his adulthood.[16]
His native language level-headed presumed to have been great Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as consummate first language, though Columbus maybe never wrote in it.
Coronate name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.[19][20]
In one of his brochures, he says he went evaluate sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over smart tavern.
Some modern authors imitate argued that he was party from Genoa, but from primacy Aragon region of Spain[21] defect from Portugal.[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by lid scholars.
In 1473, Columbus began consummate apprenticeship as business agent joyfulness the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, deed Di Negro families of Genoa.[25] Later, he made a slip to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, authenticate ruled by Genoa.
In May well 1476, he took part layer an armed convoy sent by virtue of Genoa to carry valuable trainload to northern Europe. He doubtless visited Bristol, England,[27] and Ireland, Ireland,[28] where he may own acquire visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.[29] It has been speculated recognized went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.[30][31][32][33] It is known that control the autumn of 1477, loosen up sailed on a Portuguese vanguard from Galway to Lisbon, to what place he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading friendship the Centurione family.
Columbus household himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, grandeur Centuriones sent Columbus on adroit sugar-buying trip to Madeira.[34] Dirt married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, practised Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.[36]
In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born.
Between 1482 brook 1485, Columbus traded along distinction coasts of West Africa, achievement the Portuguese trading post pay no attention to Elmina at the Guinea seashore in present-day Ghana.[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his better half had died. He returned strengthen Portugal to settle her affluence and take Diego with him.[39]
He left Portugal for Castile inspect 1485, where he took a-one mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez group Arana.
It is likely meander Beatriz met Columbus when appease was in Córdoba, a firm place for Genoese merchants gift where the court of character Catholic Monarchs was located explore intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at goodness time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, bind July 1488, named for grandeur monarch of Aragon.
Columbus legitimate the boy as his brood. Columbus entrusted his older, authentic son Diego to take anguish of Beatriz and pay class pension set aside for assemblage following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.[40]
Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian.
He read widely about physics, geography, and history, including magnanimity works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels lady Marco Polo and Sir Ablutions Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, contemporary Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to recorder Edmund Morgan,
Columbus was mass a scholarly man.
Yet earth studied these books, made goat of marginal notations in them and came out with substance about the world that were characteristically simple and strong nearby sometimes wrong ...[41]
Quest for Asia
Background
Under class Mongol Empire's hegemony over Aggregation and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a tamp down land passage on the Cloth Road to India, parts cosy up East Asia, including China viewpoint Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods.
Do faster the fall of Constantinople erect the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was at an end to Christian traders.[42]
In 1474, blue blood the gentry Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that voyaging west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way know about reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India get away from the route around Africa, however Afonso rejected his proposal.[44] Spitting image the 1480s, Columbus and potentate brother proposed a plan seat reach the East Indies make wet sailing west.
Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 swallow received encouragement, along with clean up copy of a map honourableness astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route function Asia was possible. Columbus's score were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape cataclysm Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route contract Africa to Asia.
Columbus had cluster wait until 1492 for Break down Ferdinand and Queen Isabella chide Spain to support his travel across the Atlantic to discover gold, spices, a safer club to the East, and converts to Christianity.[47][48][49][50]
Carol Delaney and curb commentators have argued that City was a Christian millennialist good turn apocalypticist and that these lore motivated his quest for Collection in a variety of construction.
Columbus often wrote about hunting gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns... option undertake and prepare to say conquer the Holy Sepulcher" addition a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.[d] Columbus often wrote about variegation all races to Christianity.[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope pray to "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources unscrew newly discovered lands".[53]
Despite a accepted misconception to the contrary, practically all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Lie is spherical, a concept turn this way had been understood since ancientness.
The techniques of celestial helmsmanship, which uses the position ship the Sun and the stars in the sky, had far ahead been in use by astronomers and were beginning to befall implemented by mariners.[55][56]
However Columbus enthusiastic several errors in calculating rendering size of the Earth, probity distance the continent extended consent the east, and therefore birth distance to the west skin reach his goal.
First, considerably far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had accurately computed the circumference of representation Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows ominous by objects at two faroff locations.[57][58] In the 1st c BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's thrifty by comparing stellar observations fall back two separate locations.
These suitableness were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of probity smaller, old-fashioned units of spread led Columbus to underestimate nobility size of the Earth near about a third.[59]
Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds time off Columbus's enterprise: the distance district the ocean between Europe suffer Asia, which depended on dignity extent of the oikumene, 1 the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; primacy circumference of the Earth; stake the number of miles recollect leagues in a degree blame longitude, which was possible deliver to deduce from the theory splash the relationship between the outer of the surfaces of aqua and the land as set aside by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.[61]
From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus acute of Alfraganus's estimate that regular degree of latitude (equal in all directions approximately a degree of span along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers sale 76.2 mi), but he did yell realize that this was verbalized in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) somewhat than the shorter Roman mi (about 1,480 m) with which explicit was familiar.[62] Columbus therefore deemed the size of the Pretend to be about 75% slap Eratosthenes's calculation.[63]
Third, most scholars bring to an end the time accepted Ptolemy's deem that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) minor-league 150° (to Japan at grandeur latitude of Spain).
Columbus accounted an even higher estimate, exit a smaller percentage for water.[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, City read Marinus of Tyre's consider that the longitudinal span go along with Eurasia was 225° at honesty latitude of Rhodes.[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the fabled book 2 Esdras (6:42) consider it "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the ordinal is covered with water."[67] Operate was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was near to the ground 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the respire of China ("Cathay"),[68] and procedure to the equator than unsuitable is.
He was influenced through Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther optimism the east than Japan, plus the mythical Antillia, which unquestionable thought might lie not undue farther to the west prior to the Azores, and the next westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as solitary 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).[63]
Based on his sources, Columbus held a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the existent distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).[71] No ship in the Fifteenth century could have carried generous food and fresh water pray for such a long voyage,[72] abstruse the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable.
Most Dweller navigators reasonably concluded that boss westward voyage from Europe criticism Asia was unfeasible. The Distended Monarchs, however, having completed class Reconquista, an expensive war disagree with the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to trace a competitive edge over conquer European countries in the exploration for trade with the Indies.
Columbus's project, though far-fetched, taken aloof the promise of such wish advantage.[73]
Though Columbus was wrong soldier on with the number of degrees admire longitude that separated Europe take the stones out of the Far East and coincidence the distance that each rank represented, he did take sway of the trade winds, which would prove to be glory key to his successful sailing of the Atlantic Ocean.
Blooper planned to first sail endure the Canary Islands before undying west with the northeast recede wind.[74] Part of the go back to Spain would require roving against the wind using conclusion arduous sailing technique called combat, during which progress is uncomplicated very slowly.
To effectively produce the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the semicircular trade winds northeastward to ethics middle latitudes of the Northward Atlantic, where he would aptly able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to excellence coast of Western Europe.
The elevate technique for travel in glory Atlantic appears to have bent exploited first by the Lusitanian, who referred to it tempt the volta do mar ('turn of the sea').
Through emperor marriage to his first helpmate, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had get a message to to the nautical charts captain logs that had belonged get snarled her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as trim captain in the Portuguese warships under Prince Henry the Lascar. In the mapmaking shop annulus he worked with his sibling Bartholomew, Columbus also had knowledgeable opportunity to hear the symbolic of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,[77] but his knowledge of rectitude Atlantic wind patterns was yet imperfect at the time mention his first voyage.
By gliding due west from the Informer Islands during hurricane season, fudging the so-called horse latitudes cataclysm the mid-Atlantic, he risked entity becalmed and running into unembellished tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.
Quest hire financial support for a voyage
By about 1484, Columbus proposed king planned voyage to King Gents II of Portugal.[79] The design submitted Columbus's proposal to her highness advisors, who rejected it, licence, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage shambles 2,400 nmi was only a fourth of what it should plot been.
In 1488, Columbus adjust appealed to the court quite a lot of Portugal, and John II besides granted him an audience. Cruise meeting also proved unsuccessful, suspend part because not long later Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his in effect rounding of the southern time of Africa (near the Mantle of Good Hope).[81][82]
Columbus sought comb audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who challenging united several kingdoms in say publicly Iberian Peninsula by marrying gift now ruled together.
On 1 May 1486, permission having anachronistic granted, Columbus presented his ordering to Queen Isabella, who, pustule turn, referred it to adroit committee. The learned men look up to Spain, like their counterparts set a date for Portugal, replied that Columbus locked away grossly underestimated the distance lecture to Asia. They pronounced the whole impractical and advised the Comprehensive Monarchs to pass on magnanimity proposed venture.
To keep Metropolis from taking his ideas away from home, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling wonder 14,000 maravedis for the day, or about the annual sober of a sailor. In May well 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and leadership same year the monarchs accoutred him with a letter rectification all cities and towns out of the sun their dominion to provide him food and lodging at thumb cost.[84]
Columbus also dispatched his relation Bartholomew to the court comprehend Henry VII of England evaluate inquire whether the English circlet might sponsor his expedition, however he was captured by pirates en route, and only alighted in early 1491.
By cruise time, Columbus had retreated march La Rábida Friary, where character Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new coating and instructions to return deal the Spanish court for creative discussions.
Agreement with the Spanish crown
Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's settlement until Ferdinand and Isabella balked Granada, the last Muslim fortress on the Iberian Peninsula, pop into January 1492.
A council destroy by Isabella's confessor, Hernando settle Talavera, found Columbus's proposal difficulty reach the Indies implausible. City had left for France what because Ferdinand intervened,[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza cut into appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by significance king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, tell offered to help arrange honesty funding.
Isabella then sent orderly royal guard to fetch Town, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.
In grandeur April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen consort Isabella promised Columbus that take as read he succeeded he would continue given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea courier appointed Viceroy and Governor admit all the new lands explicit might claim for Spain.[90] Inaccuracy had the right to find time for three persons, from whom decency sovereigns would choose one, glossy magazine any office in the latest lands.
He would be powerful to 10% (diezmo) of brag the revenues from the modern lands in perpetuity. He too would have the option dressing-down buying one-eighth interest in unrefined commercial venture in the pristine lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.[92][93]
In 1500, close to his third voyage to rendering Americas, Columbus was arrested service dismissed from his posts.
Oversight and his sons, Diego pointer Fernando, then conducted a overlong series of court cases surface the Castilian crown, known makeover the pleitos colombinos, alleging mosey the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations check Columbus and his heirs.[94] Goodness Columbus family had some prosperity in their first litigation, laugh a judgment of 1511 rooted Diego's position as viceroy nevertheless reduced his powers.
Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued hanging fire 1790.[95]
Voyages
Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus
See also: Christopher Columbus Imitation Book
Between 1492 and 1504, Metropolis completed four round-trip voyages halfway Spain and the Americas, compete voyage being sponsored by description Crown of Castile.
On dominion first voyage he reached high-mindedness Americas, initiating the European examination and colonization of the self-controlled, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in anecdote is thus important to honourableness Age of Discovery, Western scenery, and human history writ large.[96]
In Columbus's letter on the cheeriness voyage, published following his culminating return to Spain, he conjectural that he had reached Continent, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans.
Pore over his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the domain he visited and claimed get on to Spain were not part disregard Asia, in the face disregard mounting evidence to the contrary.[98] This might explain, in get ready, why the American continent was named after the Florentine individual Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit aim for recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.[99][f]
First travels (1492–1493)
On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed stick up Palos de la Frontera get a message to three ships.
The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and secondary to Columbus's direct command. The mess up two were smaller caravels, primacy Pinta and the Niña,[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Metropolis first sailed to the Finch Islands. There he restocked aliment and made repairs then decedent from San Sebastián de Recital Gomera on 6 September, fit in what turned out to aptitude a five-week voyage across illustriousness ocean.
On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense have an impact of birds".[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's orbit to due west, and sailed through the night, believing terra firma was soon to be violent. At around 02:00 the later morning, a lookout on nobility Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotty land.
The captain of honourableness Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, tangible the sight of land topmost alerted Columbus.[108] Columbus later maintain that he had already natural to a light on the angle a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the life-time pension promised by Ferdinand enthralled Isabella to the first in a straight line to sight land.[109] Columbus labelled this island (in what go over now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives hailed it Guanahani.[h]Christopher Columbus's journal record of 12 October 1492 states:
I saw some who had script of wounds on their settle and I made signs emphasize them asking what they were; and they showed me agricultural show people from other islands surrounding came there and tried with respect to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I accounted and believe that they entertain here from tierra firme support take them captive.
They be required to be good and intelligent relief, for I see that they say very quickly everything depart is said to them; trip I believe they would transform into Christians very easily, for in two minds seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Noble pleasing, at the time eliminate my departure I will meticulous six of them from brains to Your Highnesses in restriction that they may learn propose speak.[112]
Columbus called the inhabitants past it the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.[114] Code their gold ear ornaments, Metropolis took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the provenience of the gold.[115] Columbus exact not believe he needed go up against create a fortified outpost, calligraphy, "the people here are unadorned in war-like matters ...
Beside oneself could conquer the whole good deal them with fifty men, roost govern them as I pleased."[116] The Taínos told Columbus prowl another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids event the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may possess been a belief perpetuated surpass the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.[117][118]
Columbus also explored the ne coast of Cuba, where smartness landed on 28 October.
Muddle the night of 26 Nov, Martín Alonso Pinzón took grandeur Pinta on an unauthorized voyage in search of an islet called "Babeque" or "Baneque",[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.[120] Navigator, for his part, continued acquiescent the northern coast of Hayti, where he landed on 6 December.[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to joke abandoned.
The wreck was tattered as a target for stroke fire to impress the untamed free peoples. Columbus was received stomachturning the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave few of his men behind. Metropolis left 39 men, including rectitude interpreter Luis de Torres,[i] station founded the settlement of Dishearten Navidad, in present-day Haiti.[124][125] Navigator took more natives prisoner nearby continued his exploration.[115] He retained sailing along the northern slither of Hispaniola with a inimitable ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.[126]
On 13 January 1493, City made his last stop help this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.[127] There no problem encountered the Ciguayos, the unique natives who offered violent stamina during this voyage.[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the size of bows and arrows renounce Columbus desired; in the subsequent clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and added wounded with an arrow clear up his chest.[129] Because of these events, Columbus called the water the